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Rust Belt To Sun Belt

Written By Thursday, October 20, 2022 Add Comment Edit

Not to be confused with the Common salt Chugalug.

Region in the United states affected by industrial decline

Alter in total number of manufacturing jobs in metropolitan areas, 1954–2002 (figures for New England are from 1958).

 >58% loss

 43–56% loss

 31–43.2% loss

 8.7–29.1% loss [United States boilerplate: 8.65% loss]

 7.5% loss – 54.4% proceeds

 >62% gain

Change in per capita personal income in metropolitan counties, 1980–2002, relative to the average for U.S. metropolitan areas.

 income above average, growth faster than average

 income above average, growth average or below average

 income in a higher place average only decreasing

 income below average, growth faster than boilerplate

 income beneath boilerplate, growth average or below average

 income below boilerplate and further decreasing

The Rust Chugalug is a potentially pejorative[one] term for a region of the United States that experienced industrial decline starting in the 1950's.[two] The U.S. manufacturing sector as a percentage of the U.S. GDP peaked in 1953 and has been in reject since, impacting certain regions and cities primarily in the Northeast and Midwest regions of the U.S., including Allentown, Buffalo, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Columbus, Jersey City, Newark, Pittsburgh, Rochester, Toledo, Trenton, Youngstown, and other areas of New Jersey, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Upstate New York. These regions experienced and, in some cases, are continuing to experience the elimination or outsourcing of manufacturing jobs start in the tardily 20th century. The term "Rust" refers to the impact of deindustrialization, economical refuse, population loss, and urban disuse on these regions attributable to the shrinking of the once-powerful industrial sector especially including steelmaking, motorcar manufacturing, and coal mining. The term gained popularity in the U.S. beginning in the 1980s[3] when it was commonly contrasted with the Dominicus Belt, which was surging.

The Rust Belt runs southwesterly from Central New York through Pennsylvania, Ohio, West Virginia, Kentucky, Indiana, and so northwesterly through the Lower Peninsula of Michigan, northern Illinois, and ends in northeastern Wisconsin.[iv] [five] New England was also difficult hit by industrial turn down during the same era. Since the mid-20th century, heavy industry has declined in the region, formerly known as the industrial heartland of America.

Causes include transfer of manufacturing jobs overseas, increased automation, and the decline of the US steel and coal industries.[6] Cities closer to the Eastward Coast like the New York Metropolitan Area, and the Boston surface area have been able to adapt by diversifying or transforming their economies to shift focus towards services, advanced manufacturing, and loftier-tech industries. Others have not fared besides, experiencing economical distress with poverty and the resulting turn down in population.[seven]

Background [edit]

In the 20th century, local economies in these states specialized in big-scale manufacturing of finished medium to heavy industrial and consumer products, as well as the transportation and processing of the raw materials required for heavy industry.[eight] The area was referred to as the Manufacturing Belt,[9] Factory Belt, or Steel Chugalug as distinct from the agricultural Midwestern states forming the so-chosen Corn Belt and Great Plains states that are often called the "breadbasket of America".[x]

The flourishing of industrial manufacturing in the region was caused in office by the proximity to the Neat Lakes waterways, and abundance of paved roads, water canals and railroads. After the transportation infrastructure linked the atomic number 26 ore found in the and so-called Iron Range of northern Minnesota, Wisconsin and Upper Michigan with the coking coal mined from the Appalachian Basin in Western Pennsylvania and Western Virginia, the Steel Chugalug was born. Soon it developed into the Manufactory Belt with its manufacturing cities: Chicago, Buffalo, Detroit, Milwaukee, Cincinnati, Toledo, Cleveland, St. Louis, Youngstown, and Pittsburgh, amongst others. This region for decades served equally a magnet for immigrants from Austria-Republic of hungary, Poland and Russia, besides every bit Yugoslavia, Italy, and the Levant in some areas, who provided the industrial facilities with inexpensive labor.[xi] These migrants drawn by labor were also accompanied by African Americans during the Keen Migration who were drawn by jobs and better economical opportunity.

Following several "nail" periods from the belatedly-19th to the mid-20th century, cities in this surface area struggled to adapt to a variety of adverse economic and social conditions. From 1979 to 1982, the US Federal Reserve decided to raise the base interest rate in the U.s. to 19%. High-involvement rates attracted wealthy foreign "hot money" into Us banks and acquired the US dollar to appreciate. This made US products more expensive for foreigners to buy and also made imports much cheaper for Americans to buy. The misaligned exchange rate was not rectified until 1986, by which time Japanese imports, in detail, had made rapid inroads into US markets.[12] From 1987 to 1999, the US stock market went into a stratospheric ascent, and this continued to pull wealthy foreign money into The states banks, which biased the exchange rate against manufactured goods. Related issues include the decline of the iron and steel industry, the movement of manufacturing to the southeastern states with their lower labor costs,[thirteen] the layoffs due to the rise of automation in industrial processes, the decreased need for labor in making steel products, new organizational methods such as just-in-time manufacturing which allowed factories to maintain production with fewer workers, the internationalization of American business, and the liberalization of strange trade policies due to globalization.[14] Cities struggling with these conditions shared several difficulties, including population loss, lack of didactics, declining tax revenues, loftier unemployment and offense, drugs, swelling welfare rolls, deficit spending, and poor municipal credit ratings.[15] [16] [17] [18] [19]

Geography [edit]

Since the term "Rust Belt" is used to refer to a set of economic and social weather rather than to an overall geographical region of the U.s., the Rust Belt has no precise boundaries. The extent to which a community may accept been described as a "Rust Belt urban center" depends on how corking a role industrial manufacturing played in its local economy in the past and how it does at present, also every bit on perceptions of the economic viability and living standards of the present twenty-four hour period.[ citation needed ]

News media occasionally refer to a patchwork of defunct centers of heavy manufacture and manufacturing across the Great Lakes and Midwestern Us as the snow belt,[20] the manufacturing belt, or the factory chugalug – because of their vibrant industrial economies in the past. This includes near of the cities of the Midwest as far due west as the Mississippi River, including St. Louis, and many of those in the Corking Lakes and Northern New York.[ citation needed ] At the heart of this expanse lies an area stretching from northern Indiana and southern Michigan in the due west to Upstate New York in the east, where local tax revenues equally of 2004[update] relied more than heavily on manufacturing than on any other sector.[21] [22]

Earlier World War II, the cities in the Rust Belt region were among the largest in the United States. Nevertheless, by the twentieth century's end their population had fallen the almost in the country.[23]

History [edit]

Sectors of the US Economic system as pct of Gross domestic product 1947–2009.[24]

The linking of the former Northwest Territory with the once-rapidly industrializing East Coast was effected through several big-calibration infrastructural projects, most notably the Erie Canal in 1825, the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in 1830, the Allegheny Portage Railroad in 1834, and the consolidation of the New York Key after the American Civil War. A gate was thereby opened between a diversity of burgeoning industries on the interior N American continent and the markets not but of the big Eastern cities simply of Western Europe likewise.[26]

Coal, atomic number 26 ore, and other raw materials were shipped in from surrounding regions which emerged equally major ports on the Keen Lakes and served equally transportation hubs for the region with proximity to railroad lines. Coming in the other management were millions of European immigrants, who populated the cities forth the Keen Lakes shores with then-unprecedented speed. Chicago, famously, was a rural trading post in the 1840s but grew to be equally large as Paris by the time of the 1893 Columbian Exposition.[26]

Early signs of the difficulty in the northern states were evident early in the 20th century before the "boom years" were even over. Lowell, Massachusetts, once the center of textile product in the United States, was described in the magazine Harper's as a "depressed industrial desert" equally early equally 1931,[27] every bit its fabric concerns were being uprooted and sent south, primarily to the Carolinas. After the Great Depression, American entry into the Second World War effected a rapid return to economic growth, during which much of the industrial Due north reached its tiptop in population and industrial output.

The northern cities experienced changes that followed the end of the state of war, with the onset of the outward migration of residents to newer suburban communities,[28] and the declining role of manufacturing in the American economy.

Outsourcing of manufacturing jobs in tradeable goods has been an important issue in the region. One source has been globalization and the expansion of worldwide free trade agreements. Anti-globalization groups argue that merchandise with developing countries has resulted in stiff contest from countries such as China which pegs its currency to the dollar and has much lower prevailing wages, forcing domestic wages to drift downward. Some economists are concerned that long-run effects of loftier trade deficits and outsourcing are a cause of economic bug in the U.S.[29] with high external debt (amount owed to foreign lenders) and a serious deterioration in the United States cyberspace international investment position (NIIP) (−24% of GDP).[25] [30] [31]

Some economists contend that the U.S. is borrowing to fund consumption of imports while accumulating unsustainable amounts of debt.[25] [31] On June 26, 2009, Jeff Immelt, the CEO of General Electric, chosen for the United States to increase its manufacturing base employment to twenty% of the workforce, commenting that the U.S. has outsourced too much in some areas and can no longer rely on the financial sector and consumer spending to drive need.[32]

Since the 1960s, the expansion of worldwide free trade agreements accept been less favorable to U.S. workers. Imported goods such as steel price much less to produce in Third Earth countries with cheap foreign labor (see steel crisis). Get-go with the recession of 1970–71, a new design of deindustrializing economy emerged. Competitive devaluation combined with each successive downturn saw traditional U.S. manufacturing workers experiencing lay-offs. In full general, in the Manufacturing plant Chugalug employment in the manufacturing sector declined past 32.9% between 1969 and 1996.[33]

Wealth-producing primary and secondary sector jobs such as those in manufacturing and computer software were often replaced past much-lower-paying wealth-consuming jobs such as those in retail and government in the service sector when the economy recovered.[34]

A gradual expansion of the U.S. trade deficit with China began in 1985. In the ensuing years, the U.South. developed a massive trade deficit with the East Asian nations of China, Japan, Taiwan, and Republic of korea. As a result, the traditional manufacturing workers in the region have experienced economic upheaval. This result has devastated authorities budgets beyond the U.Due south. and increased corporate borrowing to fund retiree benefits.[30] [31] Some economists believe that GDP and employment can be dragged down by large long-run trade deficits.[34]

Outcomes [edit]

Francis Fukuyama considers the social and cultural consequences of deindustrialization and manufacturing decline that turned a former thriving Factory Belt into a Rust Belt as a part of a bigger transitional tendency that he called the Great Disruption:[35] "People associate the information age with the advent of the Internet in the 1990s, but the shift from the industrial era started more a generation earlier, with the deindustrialization of the Rust Belt in the Us and comparable movements away from manufacturing in other industrialized countries. … The decline is readily measurable in statistics on crime, fatherless children, broken trust, reduced opportunities for and outcomes from education, and the like".[36]

Problems associated with the Rust Belt persist even today, specially around the eastern Great Lakes states, and many once-booming manufacturing metropolises dramatically slowed down.[37] From 1970 to 2006, Cleveland, Detroit, Buffalo, and Pittsburgh lost about 45% of their population and median household incomes vicious: in Cleveland and Detroit by about 30%, in Buffalo by 20%, and Pittsburgh past x%.[38]

Information technology seemed that during the mid-1990s in several Rust Belt metro areas the negative growth was suspended every bit indicated past major statistical indicators: unemployment, wages, population change.[39] However, during the first decade of the 21st century, a negative tendency persisted: Detroit lost 25.7% of its population; Gary, Indiana – 22%; Youngstown, Ohio – xviii.9%; Flint, Michigan – eighteen.7%; and Cleveland, Ohio – 14.five%.[xl]

2000–2018 population change in Rust Belt cities
Metropolis State Population change 2018 population[41] 2000 population Tiptop Population
Detroit, Michigan Michigan −29.three% 672,662 951,270 1,849,568 (1950)
Gary, Indiana Indiana −26.7% 75,282 102,746 178,320 (1960)
Flintstone, Michigan Michigan −23.two% 95,943 124,943 196,940 (1960)
Saginaw, Michigan Michigan −21.8% 48,323 61,799 98,265 (1960)
Youngstown, Ohio Ohio −20.eight% 64,958 82,026 170,002 (1930)
Cleveland, Ohio Ohio −19.eight% 383,793 478,403 914,808 (1950)
Dayton, Ohio Ohio −15.4% 140,640 166,179 262,332 (1960)
Niagara Falls, New York New York −13.4% 48,144 55,593 102,394 (1960)
St. Louis, Missouri Missouri −13.0% 302,838 348,189 856,796 (1950)
Decatur, Illinois Illinois −12.ix% 71,290 81,860 94,081 (1980)
Canton, Ohio Ohio −12.8% 70,458 80,806 116,912 (1950)
Buffalo, New York New York −12.4% 256,304 292,648 580,132 (1950)
Toledo, Ohio Ohio −12.3% 274,975 313,619 383,818 (1970)
Lakewood, Ohio Ohio −11.half dozen% l,100 56,646 70,509 (1930)
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Pennsylvania −x.0% 301,048 334,563 676,806 (1950)
Pontiac, Michigan Michigan −9.9% 59,772 66,337 85,279 (1970)
Springfield, Ohio Ohio −9.3% 59,282 65,358 82,723 (1960)
Akron, Ohio Ohio −8.8% 198,006 217,074 290,351 (1960)
Hammond, Indiana Indiana −eight.seven% 75,795 83,048 111,698 (1960)
Cincinnati, Ohio Ohio −viii.7% 302,605 331,285 503,998 (1950)
Parma, Ohio Ohio −8.1% 78,751 85,655 100,216 (1970)
Lorain, Ohio Ohio −6.7% 64,028 68,652 78,185 (1970)
Chicago, Illinois Illinois −6.half dozen% 2,705,994 two,896,016 three,620,962 (1950)
South Bend, Indiana Indiana −5.5% 101,860 107,789 132,445 (1960)

In the late-2000s, American manufacturing recovered faster from the Not bad Recession of 2008 than the other sectors of the economy,[42] and a number of initiatives, both public and individual, are encouraging the development of alternative fuel, nano and other technologies.[43] Together with the neighboring Gilded Horseshoe of Southern Ontario, Canada, the so-chosen Rust Belt yet composes one of the world'southward major manufacturing regions.[44] [45]

Transformation [edit]

Since the 1980s, presidential candidates have devoted much of their fourth dimension to the economic concerns of the Rust Belt region, which contains the populous swing states of Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin. Those states were also critical and decisive to Donald Trump's victory in the 2016 presidential election and later to his defeat by Democrat Joe Biden in 2020.[46]

Delving into the past and musing on the future of Rust Chugalug states, the 2010 Brookings Institution report suggests that the Great Lakes region has a sizable potential for transformation, citing already existing global trade networks, clean free energy/low carbon capacity, developed innovation infrastructure and higher educational network.[47]

Different strategies were proposed in order to reverse the fortunes of the old Manufactory Belt including building casinos and convention centers, retaining the so-called "creative class" through arts and downtown renewal, encouraging the "noesis" economy type of entrepreneurship, etc. Lately[ when? ], analysts suggested that industrial improvement might be the actual path for the future resurgence of the region.[ citation needed ] That includes growing new industrial base with a pool of skilled labor, rebuilding the infrastructure and infrasystems, creating R&D university-business concern partnerships, and close cooperation between primal, state and local government and business organisation.[48]

New types of R&D-intensive nontraditional manufacturing have emerged recently in Rust Chugalug, such as biotechnology, the polymer manufacture, infotech, and nanotech. Infotech in detail creates a promising venue for the Rust Chugalug'south revitalization.[49] Among the successful contempo examples is the Detroit Aircraft Corporation, which specializes in unmanned aerial systems integration, testing and aerial cinematography services.[fifty]

In Pittsburgh, robotics research centers and companies such as National Robotics Engineering Eye and Robotics Institute, Aethon Inc., American Robot Corporation, Automatika, Quantapoint, Blue Belt Technologies and Seegrid are creating country-of-the-art robotic engineering applications. Akron, a former "Prophylactic Capital of the Earth" that lost 35,000 jobs after major tire and condom manufacturers Goodrich, Firestone and General Tire airtight their product lines, is now again well known around the world equally a centre of polymer research with four hundred polymer-related manufacturing and distribution companies operating in the area. The turnaround was accomplished in part due to a partnership between The Goodyear Tire & Condom Company, which chose to stay, the University of Akron, and the metropolis mayor'due south part. The Akron Global Concern Accelerator that jump-started a score of successful business ventures in Akron resides in the refurbished B.F. Goodrich tire factory.[51]

Additive manufacturing, or 3D press, creates another promising artery for the manufacturing resurgence. Such companies as MakerGear from Beachwood, Ohio, or ExOne Company from North Huntingdon, PA, are designing and manufacturing industrial and consumer products using 3-D imaging systems.[52]

In 2013, the London-based Economist pointed towards a growing trend of reshoring, or inshoring, of manufacture when a growing number of American companies are moving their production facilities from overseas back home.[53] Rust Belt states can ultimately benefit from this process of international insourcing.

At that place take likewise been attempts to reinvent properties in the Rust Belt in order to reverse its economic decline. Buildings with compartmentalization unsuitable for today's uses were acquired and renewed to facilitate new businesses. These business activities suggest that the revival is taking identify in the once-brackish surface area.[54] The CHIPS and Science Human action which became constructive in August of 2022, was designed to rebuild the manufacturing sector with thousands of jobs and research programs in states like Ohio focusing on making products similar semiconductors due to the global chip shortage of the early 2020's.[55]

In popular culture [edit]

The Rust Chugalug is depicted in various films, television shows, and songs. It is the subject of the popular Billy Joel song, "Allentown," originally released on The Nylon Curtain album in 1982. The song uses Allentown every bit a metaphor for the resilience of working-class Americans in distressed industrial cities during the recession of the early 1980s.

The Rust Belt is also the setting for Philipp Meyer'southward 2009 novel American Rust and its 2021 tv adaptation. A cadre plot device of both is the economic, social, and population reject[56] facing the fictional Western Pennsylvanian town of Buell, itself brought about by thorough de-industrialization typical of the region.[57]

See too [edit]

  • Pass up of Detroit
  • Deindustrialization
  • Dutch disease
  • Early 1980s recession in the Us
  • Economy of the United states of america
  • Economy of Allentown, Pennsylvania
  • Economic system of Youngstown, Ohio
  • Outsourcing
  • Shrinking city
  • Steel crisis
  • Urban disuse

References [edit]

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  3. ^ Crandall, Robert Due west. The Continuing Reject of Manufacturing in the Rust Chugalug. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1993.
  4. ^ Abadi, Mark; Gal, Shayanne (May 7, 2018). "The Us is split into more than a dozen 'belts' defined by industry, weather, and even health". Business Insider . Retrieved November 2, 2020.
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  9. ^ Meyer, David R. 1989. "Midwestern Industrialization and the American Manufacturing Belt in the Nineteenth Century." Journal of Economical History 49(4):921–937.
  10. ^ "Interactives . United States History Map. L States". www.learner.org. Archived from the original on Apr 4, 2017. Retrieved June 7, 2013.
  11. ^ , McClelland, Ted. Nothin' but Blue Skies: The Heyday, Hard Times, and Hopes of America's Industrial Heartland. New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2013.
  12. ^ Marie Christine Duggan (2017). "Deindustrialization in the Granite State: What Keene, New Hampshire Can Tell Us Most the Roles of Monetary Policy and Financialization in the Loss of US Manufacturing Jobs". Dollars & Sense. No. November/Dec 2017.
  13. ^ Alder, Simeon, David Lagakos, and Lee Ohanian. (2012). "The Decline of the United states of america Rust Chugalug: A Macroeconomic Analysis" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on December 3, 2013. {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors listing (link)
  14. ^ High, Steven C. Industrial Sunset: The Making of North America'southward Rust Chugalug, 1969–1984. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2003.
  15. ^ Jargowsky, Paul A. Poverty and Place: Ghettos, Barrios, and the American Urban center. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1997.
  16. ^ Hagedorn, John M., and Perry Macon. People and Folks: Gangs, Crime and the Underclass in a Rustbelt City. Lake View Press, Chicago, IL, (paperback: ISBN 0-941702-21-9; clothbound: ISBN 0-941702-twenty-0), 1988.
  17. ^ "Rust Belt Woes: Steel out, drugs in," The Northwest Florida Daily News, Jan xvi, 2008. PDF Archived April half-dozen, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
  18. ^ Beeson, Patricia E. "Sources of the turn down of manufacturing in large metropolitan areas." Journal of Urban Economics 28, no. one (1990): 71–86.
  19. ^ Higgins, James Jeffrey. Images of the Rust Belt. Kent, Ohio: Kent State Academy Press, 1999.
  20. ^ "Sun On The Snow Belt (editorial)". Chicago Tribune. Baronial 25, 1985. Retrieved September 22, 2011. The Northern states, once the foundry of the nation, are known now every bit the Rust Chugalug or the Snow Belt, in invidious comparing to the supposedly booming Sun Belt.
  21. ^ "Measuring Rurality: 2004 County Typology Codes". USDA Economical Inquiry Service. Archived from the original on September 14, 2011. Retrieved September 21, 2011.
  22. ^ Garreau, Joel. The Nine Nations of North America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1981.
  23. ^ Hansen, Jeff; et al. (March 10, 2007). "Which Mode Forrad?". The Birmingham News . Retrieved September 21, 2011.
  24. ^ "Who Makes It?". Retrieved November 28, 2011.
  25. ^ a b c Bivens, 50. Josh (December 14, 2004). Debt and the dollar Archived Dec 17, 2004, at the Wayback Auto Economical Policy Establish. Retrieved on June 28, 2009.
  26. ^ a b Kunstler, James Howard (1996). Home From Nowhere: Remaking Our Everyday World for the 21st Century. New York: Touchstone/Simon and Schuster. ISBN978-0-684-83737-6.
  27. ^ Marion, Paul (November 2009). "Timeline of Lowell History From the 1600s to 2009". Yankee Magazine. Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2015-12-27 .
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  29. ^ Hira, Ron, and Anil Hira with foreword by Lou Dobbs, (May 2005). Outsourcing America: What's Behind Our National Crunch and How We Tin can Reclaim American Jobs. (AMACOM) American Direction Association. Citing Paul Craig Roberts, Paul Samuelson, and Lou Dobbs, pp. 36–38.
  30. ^ a b Cauchon, Dennis, and John Waggoner (October iii, 2004).The Looming National Benefit Crisis. Us Today.
  31. ^ a b c Phillips, Kevin (2007). Bad Money: Reckless Finance, Failed Politics, and the Global Crisis of American Capitalism. Penguin. ISBN978-0-14-314328-4.
  32. ^ Bailey, David and Soyoung Kim (June 26, 2009).GE's Immelt says the U.Southward. economy needs industrial renewal.UK Guardian.. Retrieved on June 28, 2009.
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  35. ^ Fukuyama, Francis. The Great Disruption: Human Nature and the Reconstitution of Social Club. New York: Free Press, 1999.
  36. ^ Francis Fukuyama. The Bully Disruption, The Atlantic Monthly, May 1999, Book 283, No. 5, pages 55–eighty.
  37. ^ Feyrer, James, Bruce Sacerdote, and Ariel Dora Stern. Did the Rust Chugalug Become Shiny? A Study of Cities and Counties That Lost Steel and Auto Jobs in the 1980s. Brookings-Wharton Papers on Urban Diplomacy (2007): 41–102.
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  45. ^ Rust Belt is nevertheless the heart of U.S. manufacturing [ permanent dead link ]
  46. ^ Michael McQuarrie (November eight, 2017). "The revolt of the Rust Belt: place and politics in the historic period of acrimony". The British Journal of Sociology. 68 (S1): S120–S152. doi:ten.1111/1468-4446.12328. PMID 29114874. S2CID 26010609.
  47. ^ John C. Austin, Jennifer Bradley, and Jennifer S. Vey (September 27, 2010). "The Adjacent Economy: Economic Recovery and Transformation in the Great Lakes Region". Brookings Institution Paper. {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  48. ^ Joel Kotkin, March Schill, Ryan Streeter. (Feb 2012). "Clues From The Past: The Midwest As An Aspirational Region" (PDF). Sagamore Institute. {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors listing (link)
  49. ^ Circle, Cheetah Interactive, Paul (xix May 2013). "Silicon Rust Belt » Rethink The Rust Belt".
  50. ^ "ASX – Airspace Experience Technologies – Detroit MI – VTOL". ASX.
  51. ^ Sherry Karabin (May 16, 2013). "Mayor says attitude is fundamental to Akron's revitalization". The Akron Legal News.
  52. ^ Len Boselovic (June 13, 2013). "Conference in Pittsburgh shows growing allure of 3-D printing". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Retrieved May 25, 2020.
  53. ^ "Coming habitation: A growing number of American companies are moving their manufacturing dorsum to the United states". The Economist. Jan 19, 2013. Retrieved June xx, 2013.
  54. ^ Dayton, Stephen Starr in; Ohio (Jan five, 2019). "Rust Belt states reinvent their abandoned industrial landscapes". The Irish gaelic Times . Retrieved January 26, 2020.
  55. ^ "Biden touts computer fries pecker in battleground Ohio amid tight Senate race". NBC News. 2022-09-09. Retrieved 2022-10-xi .
  56. ^ "Philipp Meyer". Retrieved 2022-08-08 .
  57. ^ "American Rust (Official Series Site) Watch on Showtime". SHO.com . Retrieved 2022-08-08 .

Farther reading [edit]

  • Broughton, Chad (2015). Nail, Bust, Exodus: The Rust Belt, the Maquilas, and a Tale of Two Cities. Oxford University Printing. ISBN978-0199765614.
  • Cooke, Philip. The Ascension of the Rustbelt. London: UCL Press, 1995. ISBN 0-203-13454-0
  • Coppola, Alessandro. Apocalypse town: cronache dalla fine della civiltà urbana. Roma: Laterza, 2012. ISBN 9788842098409
  • Denison, Daniel R., and Stuart L. Hart. Revival in the rust belt. Ann Arbor, Mich: University of Michigan Press, 1987. ISBN 0-87944-322-7
  • Engerman, Stanley L., and Robert East. Gallman. The Cambridge Economical History of the United States: The Twentieth Century. New York: Cambridge University Printing, 2000.
  • Hagedorn, John, and Perry Macon. People and Folks: Gangs, Crime, and the Underclass in a Rust-Belt City. Chicago: Lake View Press, 1988. ISBN 0-941702-21-9
  • High, Steven C. Industrial Sunset: The Making of North America's Rust Belt, 1969–1984. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2003. ISBN 0-8020-8528-8
  • Higgins, James Jeffrey. Images of the Rust Belt. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-87338-626-four
  • Lopez, Steven Henry. Reorganizing the Rust Belt: An Inside Study of the American Labor Movement. Berkeley: University of California Printing, 2004. ISBN 0-520-23565-7
  • Meyer, David R. (1989). "Midwestern Industrialization and the American Manufacturing Belt in the Nineteenth Century". The Journal of Economic History. 49 (four): 921–937. doi:x.1017/S0022050700009505. ISSN 0022-0507. JSTOR 2122744. S2CID 154436086.
  • Preston, Richard. American Steel. New York: Avon Books, 1992. ISBN 0-13-029604-Ten
  • Rotella, Carlo. Good with Their Hands: Boxers, Bluesmen, and Other Characters from the Rust Belt. Berkeley: Academy of California Press, 2002. ISBN 0-520-22562-seven
  • Teaford, Jon C. Cities of the Heartland: The Ascension and Fall of the Industrial Midwest. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-253-35786-1
  • Warren, Kenneth. The American Steel Industry, 1850–1970: A Geographical Interpretation. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973. ISBN 0-8229-3597-10

External links [edit]

  • Industrial Heartland map and photographs
  • Rust Belt map
  • Changing Gears Documentary Film Collection Digital Media Repository, Brawl State University Libraries
  • Drove: "Rust Belt" at the Academy of Michigan Museum of Art

Rust Belt To Sun Belt,

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rust_Belt

Posted by: hansonlins1970.blogspot.com

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